Localization of Bran Functions: Research and Analysis

Localization of Bran Functions: Research and Analysis Adult brains show localized functions, for example with speech processes being concentrated in areas in the left hemisphere and with executive functions concentrated in the pre-frontal cortex. How does this organization come about? Is it because these functions are localized from birth? The functioning and processes of the brain is a very complex subject. Years of studies and experiments are yet to answer all the questions we have, although modern technology like brain imaging and MRI’s has come a long way to try to understand the way our brains work and their development. The matters we will be looking at is how the brain functions are organised, exploring localisation and the strengths and limitations to this, and could this localization have be set in shape from the birth of a human brain. To do this we will be focusing on modulization and innate modularity and the theories behind them. Cognitive development of the brain starts as a baby grows in the womb and the genetic makeup of the parents entwine and start to create a genetic blueprint. As there is a limited environment in the womb, the effect that environment will have on the baby will be limited. Because of this, the post-natal stage of brain development is probably the considered the more important of the two. The human brain does most of its advance development outside of the womb, only creating the basic connections and functions inside the womb. This can be seen using brain mapping of a baby at different stages of their infancy; as a neonate the baby as very few connections and as they get older, the dendritic trees of neurons can be seen extending creating much more connections. Huttenlocher (1990) reported a steady increase in the number of synapses in several regions of the cerebral cortex†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦in parts of the visual cortex, the generation of the synapses begins around the time of birth. (Mareschal et al., 2004, p. 122)From this we can see that there are limited functions and connectivity in the brain at birth and soon after birth these connectivities rapidly start to expand. So for these functions to be localised from birth would mean having all the right connections in place for this to be possible. So from this alone we can assume that these functions are localized through influence of their environment after birth and not set in place at birth. During the early stages of a babies postnatal brain development , the brain holds the ability of plasticity which allows change and adaption for diiferent parts of the brain. At this time plasticity limits the functions in the brain are not yet identified as this capability allows for various parts of the brain to take on diverse functions in cases of localized brain damage. As the child turn into n adult the brain becomes more set and let plastic and damage to the brain in this state is a lot harder to recover from. As the brain continues to mature, its neural pathways separate and functions localise, making it much harder to ‘transfer’ functions from one section of the brain to another. Parts of the brain are allocated with certain functions; language and speech is located predominantly in the left hemisphere and cognitive functions in pre-frontal cortex. (Mareschal et al., 2004, p. 123) Along with the separation of the neural pathways and brain development comes funct ional specialization. Lewkowitz and Turkewitz (1981) study in the early 1980s supported this claim. They showed that new-born babies visual preferences were significantly affected by previous auditory stimulus. Also studies by Meltzoff and Borton (1979) show that independent pathways in infants between 3 and 5 months of age are used to receive information from different senses. These processes of separating neural pathways to create a localized functioning of the brain are linked to selectionism which originates from Darwins theory of selection, in this case showing that the pathways that were ‘weaker’ or used less are eliminated and die off while those that are frequently use are strengthened in order to function a lot quicker. Although there is little understand and much speculation about this process. (Mareschal et al., 2004,p. 124-5) By dividing the brain into cognitive modules, this helps us to try to understand the structures and functions of the brain. There is a lot of speculation as to whether these do modules exist, they provide a basis for potential explanation of brain functioning. Scientists, Fodor and Karmiloff-Smith share very contrasting views and theories on brain functioning; although they both believe there are such things as cognitive module, they have conflicting views on how they are developed. Fodor (1983) had a nativist perpective and argued that modularity of the brain is ‘innate’. He believed that humans are born with the innate capacity to develop information processing systems that allow them to make sense of the world, in which they have evolved. (Mareschal et al., 2004, p.127) He believed that the brain has the ability to function in a particular way and the environment cannot affect this. This statement can easily be scrutinised as early we discussed that genes ‘always’ interact with their environment. Therefore, for the functioning of the brain to not be affected by the environment would me an that certain genes do not interact with their environment. Fodor claimed that this happened as a direct outcome of the evolution of our species. (Mareschal et al., 2004, p.127) One piece of evidence that is useful in showing a weakness in Fodor’s theory is that of Self-organization. The Self-organizing system is based on the ability of the brain to sort information into structures when in a particular environment. (Mareschal et al 2004, p.132), According to Keslo 1995, Johnson 1997 (cited in Mareschal et al 2004), Brain development at all of the stages requires a certain amount of self-organisation. Self-organisation is based on the theory of Hebb (1949) which claims that for localized functions to work at the same time and to create particular pathways, an important rule of repetition comes into play. The Hebb rule states that the connections created by neurons to transmit information are joined by its repeated use and so support the theory of selectionism. Karmiloff-Smith (1992) on the other hand, argues that cognitive modules created through development and the effect of environment interaction and stimulation. A strong indicator for Smith is the plasticity of the brain, that certains parts of the brain may take up the function of another part of the brain if needed at an early age, which challenges the nativist idea of innate local functioning. This debate between Fodor and Karmiloff-Smith is ongoing. Petersen et al. (1990) conducted an experiment using a PET machine, where they presented native and foreign speakers with English words. The test shown that particular parts of the cortex in native speakers responded to English words. This implies that the exposure to same the environment led to the development of a specific processing area in the cortex of their left hemisphere to process English language. This experiment supports the ‘modulization theory. (Mareschal et al., 2004, p. 130) While there is much complex data to consi der, there appears to be more evidence in favour of Karmiloff-Smith’s (1992) theory which is best demonstrated with experiments and studies carried out on the ability for children to learn language. Nativists like Chomsky (1965) claim that language is innate and supporting this claim further Pinker (1994) claims that pidgins and creoles are some of the evidence for this. His claim is drawn from the evidence which shows that children are able to create grammatically correct language though they never heard it being spoken before. Chomskys argument from the ‘poverty of the input suggesting that children can create a new language such as well formulated, never before heard question. He also claims that the brain has a special set of genes allowing language to develop in a particular cortical region. In contrast to Pinkers claim, the evidence from neuroscience and particularly the study carried out by Neville et al. (1998) illustrates that though in adulthood there are spec ialist cortical regions processing language, it wasn’t destined from birth that these functions were processed in these parts of the cortex. The experiment Neville et al. carried out with his participants, showed that in the deaf participants, the identical area of language processing was stimulated as in the hearing participants and in further still, a larger part of the right hemisphere was activated. Findings like this show that different parts of the brain can support language related information processing. (Mareschal et al., 2004p. 140) Reilly et al. (1998) provides further evidence. They conducted a study carried out on children with localized brain damage in the area of language processing. This occurred soon after or during birth. The study showed that while the learning ability of the children was not continuous but in fact varied, it presented a pattern of constant functional regaining of the damaged area, which were taken over by another area of the cortex. Anothe r study for adults revealed that localized lacerations causing specific loss of certain capabilities are mostly permanent. This suggests that in adulthood the plasticity of the brain reduces the functions cannot be relocated elsewhere. Johnson et al. (1996) study regarding the practical ability of pre-frontal cortex appears to support modularization. The study involving infants, revealed results suggesting that cognitive and behavioural development of infants is associated with the pre-frontal cortex especially when it comes to learning new abilities in initial stages of development. This demonstrates that the pre-frontal cortex activity is more general in early development and is able to take on other functions. Changes in these functions in the cortex are further focused and localized and the role of pre-frontal cortex reduces. It is very difficult to prove one theory as correct and the other as incorrect, as they both share areas that can be supported by some research or studies. Although a lot of evidence appears to be in favour of the modularization theory, there is a lot evidence that backs the innate modularity theory also. Both having strengths and weaknesses, but neither have enough evidence to completely contradict the other. In this case it would be safer to say that evidence shows that some functions are localized from birth, but have the potential to adapt if necessary while other functions appear to be unable to interchange and can only operate in there localized region. The reason for this appears to be circumstantial. Depending on factors such as age, damage, purpose, function and environment. It has been made know that not all functions are localized at birth and that there is much growth, development and connections made after birth that allows many areas of the brain to take part in one function and allowing the brain to expand and change. The evidence shown in this essay clearly shows that modularization is supported more than innate modularity. Even with the aid of current technology, scientists are still unable to stipulate which of the theories is the most accurate and the unending dispute is so yet to be settled. Word count: 1809 References Mareschal, D., Johnson, M. H . and Grayson A, (2004) Brain and cognitive development in Oates J. and Grayson A. (eds) Cognitive and Language Development in Children, Oxford, Blackwell/The Open University

Charles Goodyear Essay -- essays research papers

Charles Goodyear was born in New Haven, Connecticut on December 29, 1800 to Amasa and Cynthia Goodyear. Charles’s father was a hardware manufacture and a merchant. Amasa Goodyear built mainly farming tools like hayforks and scythes, which he invented. When Charles was a teenager he wanted to go into the ministry and become a pastor, but his father convinced him that he was a good business man and placed him in the hardware store of the Rogers brothers in Philadelphia at the age of seventeen. He worked there until he was twenty-one years old. At that time he returned to New Haven to join his father’s business, making farm tools. For five years he worked for his father, building up the family business. On August 24, 1824, while he was still working for his father he married Clarissa Beecher who also lived in New Haven, Connecticut. In 1826 Charles Goodyear decided to move to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. There he opened a hardware store where he sold the products that his f ather made. Four years after opening this store both Amasa and Charles Goodyear were bankrupt because they would extend credit to customers and the customers would never pay back the money that they owed. Charles’s health started to decline and both father and son owed tens of thousands of dollars. For the next thirty years Charles Goodyear was thrown in prison over ten times because he didn’t pay his debts. In 1834 when he was in New York, on a business trip, the Roxbury India Rubber Company caught his eye. ...

Does She Encourage Thinness?

This essay examines the question of whether the iconic â€Å"Barbie Doll† (â€Å"Barbie†) causes young (5-8 year old) girls to desire thinness, thereby detrimentally effecting their self-image. Barbie, introduced to the children’s market in the 1950s, is a 9-inch doll created with what are widely regarded as imaginary proportions. Concern over the adverse effects of Barbie on children growing, Barbie’s figure was recently changed to reflect, among other things, a smaller bust and wider hips. Nevertheless, the controversy still remains: Does Barbie contribute to or even create negative body images in young girls?II. The Concerns: Barbie as Destructive Force Concerned parents and adult women who themselves were affected by the body size and shape portrayed by America’s favorite doll have expressed fear or conviction that playing with Barbie dolls may or does lead to a panoply of image-related problems in the youth who play with them. Little best examp les the detrimental results of Barbie on children than the reputed decision of one adult woman to request that a plastic surgeon recreate her body and face to mirror Barbie’s.When examined closely, however, the woman – and, eventually, society – learned that Barbie, if created as a human being, would have feet too small to balance her body on, breasts too large to be supported by her tiny waist, and hips likely too narrow to bear children. Indeed, Barbie could literally never exist in reality. At core, those opposed to Barbie for image-related reasons posit that girls at particularly vulnerable ages are easily impressed upon by the doll they come to not only play with, but idealize. Those girls wish not only to do all the things Barbie does – become an astronaut or doctor – but look like her.While becoming an astronaut or doctor are attainable goals for most if not all young girls, achieving Barbie’s looks is not. Were Barbie not important, she would in fact have little if any effect over her fans. III. Why They Have Their Point Though Barbie may not be responsible for the destructive force many attribute to her, concerned parents and former Barbie fans do have their point: Women do not look like Barbie dolls. Though an ultimate compliment may be, â€Å"You’re so pretty – you look like a Barbie,† in reality Barbie paints a picture of women that does not accurately reflect nature.For children particularly, impressions are easily made at tender ages, when bodies have yet to develop and knowledge is limited. Therefore, the five- or six-year old child, who has little reason to know otherwise, will be prone to accepting Barbie’s figure and appearance as a true reflection of what she will one day become. The detrimental effects may be especially harsh on children without mothers or sisters in their lives, or children in families who perpetuate negative self-images via perpetual dieting or other be haviors.For those children – the ones who arguably need the most direction – they may â€Å"look to† Barbie for more and as a result shape their own self-images around her. IV. Anti-Barbie: A Correct Assumption Underlying the Barbie dissenter’s opinion is the assumption that Barbie’s fans are easily impressionable and that Barbie has enough power in their lives to effect self-perception. Little argument can be made as to the former assumption (few would dispute that 5-year-olds are easily manipulated); and, though there is room for doubt as to the latter proposition, popularity attests to Barbie’s frontrunner status in the children’s market.Year by year, Barbie is consistently a favorite among young girls, and over time has evolved from teen fashion model to wife to mother to career woman. Throughout all, her figure has remained unscathed, sending the perhaps subconscious message to the girls who idealize her that they, too, will look forever young and thin no matter how old they grow or how differently their bodies may be made. It is Barbie’s enduring popularity that makes her so central a figure in the lives of so many. V. Why Barbie Works Despite Her FlawsDespite criticism, Barbie may in fact little harm a young girl’s self-image. She is, after all, just a doll. Few girls are told, or even given the suggestion, that Barbie is a true reflection of women’s bodies or lives. Barbie no more accurately reflects women’s bodies than does Ken accurately reflect men’s, and she is not designed to. Barbie, rather, is a tool of escape. Children of ages five, six, and even eight and ten seldom if ever would be found focusing on Barbie’s proportions or dress size. They, rather, use her as a tool with which to engage in fantasy.Beyond this, while Barbie may be the most popular girls’ toy, she is far from the most determinative factor on a young woman’s self-image. Most girls discontinue Barbie play well before their adolescence, the time when most young women begin focusing on and comparing their bodies with others. The force of society on a girl’s self-image cannot be underplayed. To assign Barbie with greatly influencing a girl’s view of her body when she is bombarded with images of real girls in popular culture who are unnaturally thin (on television, in magazines, in film) is to assign to her more importance than she in fact has.While Barbie lives in the world of fantasy and toy, images of super-thin models and women abound in an adolescent’s very real world – in the magazines she reads and on the television programs she watches. In many instances, the superstars and celebrities she looks up to are unnaturally thin and encourage her to dislike her own body. Perhaps more importantly, a young girl’s friends and family likely have far more influence on a girl’s perception of herself than Barbie.If a girlà ¢â‚¬â„¢s mother is comfortable with her body, she will likely instill similar comfort in her daughter. If, in contrast, a girl grows up hearing her mother perpetually complain that she (the mother) is fat or otherwise inadequate, she may well internalize such thought process and apply it to herself. Peers, too, who complain that their bodies are inadequate in one form or another may cause self-doubt in a girl. VI. A Balance: Healthy Barbie Though Barbie may not have the effect on her fans that her critics assign to her, itis likely that she does have some influence over her audience. Barbie, a staple of the toy world, doubtless plays her part in society and in shaping the goals, values, and self-images of those who play with her. To some extent, Mattel, Barbie’s creator, has recognized and attempted to remedy some of the potential damage Barbie’s surreal figure may do on young girls by slightly changing her mold. Mattel, however, can do only so much, and even the doll sold today paints a false picture of what most girls will mature to look like.Short of Mattel creating a Barbie that comes in all different shapes and sizes, parents in particular can use their influence to minimize any ill-effects Barbie may potentially have. Children should be taught that bodies do not come in standard sizes, and that it is important to have a positive view of yourself no matter how you are built. For some households, this may entail limiting or completely erasing Barbie from the toy mixture. More ideal, however, would be to tell children that they are beautiful and fine, and that Barbie is what she is marketed as: Just a toy.

Free Essays on The Constructivist Learning Model

Constructivist Learning Theory The latest catchword in educational circles is "constructivism, " applied both to learning theory and to epistemology-both to how people learn, and to the nature of knowledge.1,2 We don't need to succumb to each new fad, but we do need to think about our work in relation to theories of learning and knowledge. So we need to ask: what is constructivism, what does it have to tell us that is new and relevant, and how do we apply it to our work? As far as I can see, there is nothing dramatically new in constructivism: the core ideas expressed by it have been clearly enunciated by John Dewey among others, but there is a new, widespread acceptance of this old set of ideas. and new research in cognitive psychology to support it. I would like to give a brief exposition of ideas central to constructivism and widely accepted today by educators. curriculum developers and cognitive psychologists, and then suggest what they mean for museum educators. Constructivism What is meant by constructivism? The term refers to the idea that learners construct knowledge for themselves-each learner individually (and socially) constructs meaning-as he or she learns. 3 Constructing meaning is learning; there is no other kind. The dramatic consequences of this view are twofold; 1) we have to focus on the learner in thinking about learning (not on the subject/lesson to be taught): 2) There is no knowledge independent of the meaning attributed to experience (constructed) by the learner, or community of learners. Let me discuss the second point first because, although it appears radical on an everyday level, it is a position which has been frequently adopted ever since people began to ponder epistemology. If we accept constructivist theory (which means we are willing to follow in the path of Dewey, Piaget and Vigotsky among others), then we have to give up Platonic and all subsequent realistic views of epistemology. We ha... Free Essays on The Constructivist Learning Model Free Essays on The Constructivist Learning Model Constructivist Learning Theory The latest catchword in educational circles is "constructivism, " applied both to learning theory and to epistemology-both to how people learn, and to the nature of knowledge.1,2 We don't need to succumb to each new fad, but we do need to think about our work in relation to theories of learning and knowledge. So we need to ask: what is constructivism, what does it have to tell us that is new and relevant, and how do we apply it to our work? As far as I can see, there is nothing dramatically new in constructivism: the core ideas expressed by it have been clearly enunciated by John Dewey among others, but there is a new, widespread acceptance of this old set of ideas. and new research in cognitive psychology to support it. I would like to give a brief exposition of ideas central to constructivism and widely accepted today by educators. curriculum developers and cognitive psychologists, and then suggest what they mean for museum educators. Constructivism What is meant by constructivism? The term refers to the idea that learners construct knowledge for themselves-each learner individually (and socially) constructs meaning-as he or she learns. 3 Constructing meaning is learning; there is no other kind. The dramatic consequences of this view are twofold; 1) we have to focus on the learner in thinking about learning (not on the subject/lesson to be taught): 2) There is no knowledge independent of the meaning attributed to experience (constructed) by the learner, or community of learners. Let me discuss the second point first because, although it appears radical on an everyday level, it is a position which has been frequently adopted ever since people began to ponder epistemology. If we accept constructivist theory (which means we are willing to follow in the path of Dewey, Piaget and Vigotsky among others), then we have to give up Platonic and all subsequent realistic views of epistemology. We ha...

Houseflies in the Public Market Essay Example

Houseflies in the Public Market Essay Example Houseflies in the Public Market Paper Houseflies in the Public Market Paper Houseflies in the Public Market: Is there any life force presence in the air that accelerates the number of houseflies in the area? In relation to this, bare exposed meat and fish contribute the number of these species? By observing, obviously, there are large numbers of houseflies flew freely in the wet section of public market. They love to travel everywhere where bare meats and fish are exposed. They adore smelly places in every corner. Hypothesis and predictions: commonly protective windows and doors screens are practiced in the house to prevent houseflies. Their favorite hang-out is itchy odorous places. They accelerate most in open area where they can fly freely and past. However there is a high possibility that bare exposed meats and fish contaminate microscopic disease organisms. Houseflies might be the one of disease-carrier organisms Experimenting practiced and results:   A group of wide-mounted jars with a piece of raw materials (piece of broth) are subjected in different variations covers. Control group placed with sealed cover on the lid. The experimental group placed exposed and the other with top cover clothe on the lid of the jar. The results, jar with exposed lids has a large number of houseflies in the container. Jar with lid cover of clothe the houseflies gathered in the lid cover but none inside the container. Contrast to the sealed jar no houseflies had seen in the container. Testing: Different set-up, the raw material (broth) used in the experiment were boiled and sterilized, the containers/jars placed with different mouth shapes. Altogether the broth and jars were cooled and fresh, and placed in well-conditioned room. The set-up is different than before, control group were placed exposed. Experiment group placed with different mouth shaped.   As the result, specimen in control group spoiled in contrast to the experiment group. Under microscopic examinations, it found out that spoiled specimen exhibit bacteria contamination that causes odor and cloud forming in the specimen. Conclusion: the test shows no signs of life force presence in air that produce organisms only same organisms can produce identical organisms. No such explanations that bare exposed foods can produce houseflies rather they are one of disease carrier.   Each organism has specific habitat where they can survive, and accelerate. Appropriate habitat is the only place where organisms can produce and multiply safely and successfully. Biology is a science that affects our life every single moment and constantly in process. Earth is the only island of life.   Billion of years ago, from one single cell life spread across to the surfaced of the earth. It is very amazing to think how life formed. As generations past, many discoveries are followed in the wonders of life. The genius mind of Linnaeus discovered the two kingdoms, plants and animals. Today with the help of advance technology, six kingdoms are discovered and added. The six kingdoms: Plants, Animals, Protist, Fungi, Archaebacteria and Eubacteria. They classified and placed based on cell type, characteristics, and number of cells present in their body. Eukaryotes and prokaryotes are the ancestor of six kingdoms. Whereas two kingdoms under prokaryotes and four kingdoms into eukaryotes.

Argument Analysis Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Argument Analysis Assignment - Essay Example Jones argues that violent media is good for kids because its juvenile and violent qualities are appropriate to children’s need for identification, which will help them deal with their personal fears and anxieties and develop confident identities. The author uses ethos and pathos to successfully convince his audience that violent media is not entirely bad for children, but the strength of his claims weaken due to the fallacies of biased sample and confusing cause and effect. Jones utilizes ethos effectively because his own childhood and professional experiences demonstrate how violent media helps children cope with their unique challenges and aspirations. He begins his article with his childhood dilemma: â€Å"At 13 I was alone and afraid† (Jones par.1). This hook represents his identification with current children, for they too, being small and helpless, tend to be alone and afraid. He establishes that he knows what it feels to be young and to need something strong to hold on to. In addition, Jones narrates how the Incredible Hulk helped him cope with his childhood fears and insecurities. He stresses the Hulk’s role in his childhood life: â€Å"I had a fantasy self who was a self: unafraid of his desires and t he worlds disapproval, unhesitating and effective in action. ‘Puny boy follow Hulk!’ roared my fantasy self, and I followed† (par.4). Jones highlights that because of Hulk, he develops a stronger persona, a child who is more confident in facing the world’s uncertainties. Aside from personal childhood experiences, Jones effectively uses his professional work to underscore that violent media can help kids explore and develop their identities. He mentions his work with urban youth: â€Å"[With a psychologist, he] developed Power Play, a program for helping young people improve their self-knowledge and sense of potency through heroic, combative storytelling† (par.10). His work with the children indicates that he

Two creation story Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Two creation story - Essay Example ristian creation stories proves that the former deals with the philosophical aspect of life and the latter deals with the practical aspect of life, and the both can help human beings to view life in today’s society from a different but positive angle of view. As pointed out, the creation stories related to Hinduism deals with the philosophical side of life. To be specific, the Hindu idea is interconnected with the belief that human beings belong to pure consciousness. This pure consciousness is beyond creation and is not destroyable. On the other side, the Christian creation story is based upon a single text, named as Holy Bible. To be specific, the creation narrative (say, the Genesis) is the fundamental principle of Christian creation theory. But the Hindu creation story is based on the belief that all living things share the same pure consciousness. Jim Ollhoff stated that, â€Å"In Indian mythology, some gods come to earth in the form of people, animals, or even other gods† (4). If an individual is not ready to go beyond the limits of the material world, that individual will be forced to undergo rebirth. So, individuals must try to break this cyclic process and they can attain the pure consciousness/eternal freedom or ‘M oksa’. In the Bible, the God’s direct role is pointed out as the base of creation of the world as a whole. For instance, the God took around six days to create everything. In the end, the God decided to create human beings as an experiment. David Adams Leeming stated that, â€Å"It contains the creation myth that forms the basis of the Judeo-Christian tradition† (126). This sort of creation myth-based upon six days-is seen among different religious groups. On the other side, the Hindu creation story does not decline the fact that the Earth was created before millions or billions of years ago. Besides, Hindu creation story is based upon the God’s role in creating human beings and other living things. Similarly, Hindu mythology is of